Smoke hoods.

It might come as a surprised just how early a system which allowed firemen to work in smoke was first used. In London early attempts to protect firemen, when entering smoke, were imported from France. A smoke-proof ‘dress’, that was created by M. Paulin, was one suggestion that found considerable favour.

Lieut-Colonel Pauline was the commander of the corps of Sapears Pompiers (fire brigade) in Paris. It was his design that crossed the Channel and adopted by its London equivalent force, the London Fire Engine Establishment (LFEE) in 1836. His invention was taken up by its Superintendent James Braidwood. Braidwood conducted his own tests and deemed them to be successful.

The smoke-hood, which covered the whole of the upper body, was made of leather. Enclosing the wearer’s head it reached down to their waist were it was secured by a belt. The arms reached down to the wrists and were secured about the cuffs by string. Two glass eye-pieces afforded the wearer uninterrupted vision.

Fresh air was supplied via a length of hose attached to the back of the hood. A bellows forced air into the hood with excess pressure escaping via the waist and wrists. As the air was being forced in it inflated the hood and prevented smoke from entering. Formally adopted, the hood was first used in anger at a fire in Basing Lane on the 22^nd December the same year. Details of how many times it was actually used remains scarce but Braidwood’s reported to his Insurance Committee stated that its use in vaults, cellars or ships holds: “this dress is invaluable”.

Progress over the next 50 years can be regarded as limited but Capt. Eyre Massey Shaw (who took over from Braidwood after his death at a fire in Tooley Street) became the first Chief Officer of the new Metropolitan Fire Brigade. Progress with smoke hood development came around 1875 when he and a Professor Tyndall devised, and introduced, a ‘smoke cap’ which was, in fact, the first respirator. The earlier hoods were considered primitive. It was thought that a respirator would filter smoke and other gases and be effective under all conditions. It was not realised that the greatest danger to firemen, wearing such equipment, was oxygen deficiency! Nothing but a supplementary air supply, or oxygen, could do the job required.

Shaw next gave his blessing to Dr Fisher’s patent smoke mask in 1878. Made of light, imperishable, material, when dipped into hot water made it plastic. Placed on quickly it could be adapted to closely fit the fireman’s face. It was made with strong glasses covering the eyes and secured to the face by a buckled strap. The whole mask weighed only a few ounces and by Victorian standards was considered reasonably efficient.

By 1900 a German company, Siebe Gorman, had supplied the brigade with an improved smoke helmet and accessories. It comprised a leather smoke helmet, double acting foot bellows air pump, canvas kit bag containing 120 ft of air hose, 120 ft. of security rope and body harness. They had introduced smoke helmets, based on the principle of a deep-sea diver’s breathing system. Air entered the helmet through breathing tubes, which were connected to a set of bellows at each side and operated by a second person. A neck curtain attached to the helmet was tucked into the fireman’s tunic, providing a reasonably air-tight seal. However, the equipment was very restrictive as firemen could only go as far as the air hose allowed.

In 1912 ten additional pairs of smoke helmets, of the self-contained type, were purchased to ensure it could be available in any part of London without undue delay. That said, in the Chief Officer’s report of that year “148 individuals were endangered at fires and of these 43 were rescued by firemen.” In the vast majority of cases firemen had, of course, to endure the punishing effects of smoke. His report made no mention if smoke-hoods made any material difference to the rescues carried out, or even if they were used?

With an increased use of motorised fire engines the following year a decision was made to purchase two additional, specialist, motorised fire engines (emergency tenders). One was under construction and would be allocated to the No 1 station at the Southwark headquarters. A second would be located at the Superintendent’s station of Clerkenwell once built.

The brigade’s policy on smoke-hoods was they were allocated to thirteen fire stations; each with two hoods carried on a fire engine. Smoke hood training was restricted to a relative few firemen, only those serving at those stations. The brigade’s total stock of smoke-hoods stood at twenty six sets. However, there continued use was brought to a sudden end in 1913.

On the 13^th March that year Firemen Robert. L. Libby and William McLaren died during an incident at Pembridge Villas. W11 near Notting Hill. The two men had entered a sewer wearing smoke hoods (it is assumed) to rescue a sewer worker, but that is not certain. What is beyond doubt is that the two firemen died. Both asphyxiated because of gas within the sewer. As a direct result of their deaths the efficacy of all the self-contained smoke hoods raised much nervousness about their continued use. Henceforth the practice of carrying smoke hoods was discontinued and they were removed from stations.

The Brigade urgently required a better system of breathing apparatus. Under existing UK legislation (1910 and 1911), it was compulsory for the vast majority of British collieries to have access to self-contained breathing apparatus. The London Fire Brigade took upon itself to adopt the mine rescue teams’ most successful system. It remained in use (albeit modified over time) for more than sixty years.

The first practical breathing apparatus set, for rescue and salvage work in coal mines, had been invented by Henry Fleuss, an Englishman. He had become interested in diving equipment whilst working for the P&O steamship company. His first apparatus, of 1879, was a primitive self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. Divers would carry a self-contained compressed oxygen supply, plus a contrivance to recover (regenerate) oxygen from exhaled carbon dioxide. Fleuss subsequently obtained patents and started his own company. He also collaborated with Siebe, Gorman & Co. of London, the premier makers of diving equipment. The Fleuss apparatus was adapted for use in mines. Enabling the wearers to survive in a poisonous atmosphere underground.

Austria and Germany had both been at the forefront of efforts to develop breathing apparatus for use in irrespirable atmospheres (underground) during the 1890s and into the 1900s. The first British models began to appear in the early 1900s. The ‘Proto’ was introduced in 1906, manufactured by Siebe Gorman.

The Proto

It was a self-contained system, consisting of a cylinder of oxygen and an air reservoir or breathing bag containing an absorbent. This removed the exhaled carbon dioxide it was mixed with a fresh supply of oxygen from the cylinder and reused. The apparatus included a separate mouthpiece through which to breathe, a nose clip and rubber goggles to protect the eyes. Although requiring special training, it was swiftly adopted by the Brigade and issued to the first emergency tender crews.

The benefit of this new breathing apparatus for firemen was that several could now work together as a team when wearing the oxygen sets. By 1916, there were some 913 Proto sets in use across Britain. The London Fire Brigade only account for around 2% of that total. The age of the smoke eating fireman remained the order of the day.

The outbreak of the Great War in 1914 had a number of significant impacts on the Brigade, not least the number of firemen, and officers, who returned to the ‘colours’ either as reservist or volunteered to fight for King and Country. With the War effort there was no funding available to see an expansion of breathing apparatus to more London fireman. According to the Brigade’s summary of stations and appliances published in 1919 it still only had the one petrol motor emergency tender and 36 sets of Proto breathing apparatus which, interestingly, were still referred to as ‘smoke helmets’!

1919 saw the promotion of Arthur Dyer to become the Brigade’s Chief Officer. The continuous duty of firemen had been approved to be changed to a two watch system the following year and with it the number of breathing apparatus trained firemen doubled. The second emergency tender was finally placed into service. Although in looks it took on the appearance of an adapted fire engine that remained open to the elements. The Proto set was proving its worth, although from the wearers point of view it was prone to overheat and the oxygen supply was painful to inhale. Dyer proved himself to be a remarkable Chief Officer, a more than competent fireman and leader of his men. However, it is worth noting that there was no general expansion in the acquisition of, or the use of, breathing.

Cmdr. Aylmer Firebrace RN. joined the London Fire Brigade as an officer entrant the same year Dyer was appointed Chief Officer. Firebrace would rise, not only to command London prior to the outbreak of WWII, but would lead the British fire service during the conflict. In 1941 he was instrumental, along with his deputy Frederick Delve, in establishing the UK’s National Fire Service. Reflecting of his early years of service he had these comments regarding attitudes to breathing apparatus.

“Fireman can, of course, be protected from smoke by the use of breathing apparatus, but we are not yet in the era; though with the advance in science it is bound to come. A time when every fireman has his own personal set of really light, efficient apparatus.” “But the apparatus is bulky and heavy, some thirty-one pounds, and a handicap to firefighting activity.”

However, Firebrace was swift to praise the performance of his BA firemen too. He reported on the quick thinking of a BA crew who saved the lives of two sewer men. An emergency tender crew had been summoned to rescue two men overcome in the sewer some 140 ft. below ground level. The gas-plant used for pumping fresh air into the sewer, whilst the men worked below, failed. First descending and then walking half a mile through sewage the team discovered two in a state of collapse. The Sub Officer leading the team detailed two men to carry one of the casualties to the entrance and fresh air. He carried the other man unaided. On his return he noted the man had stopped breathing. Filling his Proto breathing bag with oxygen he then disconnected the oxygen cylinder from the set and administered oxygen to the unconscious man. As the man’s breathing grew stronger he was carried to the entrance and raised to the surface. Both men survived their ordeal. Firebrace’s comment on the extraordinary rescue was; “Only a stout-hearted man, complete master of his equipment, would have done this.”

It was not until 1934 that progress in the greater availably of breathing apparatus was felt across the brigade. Under its new Chief Officer, Major Cyril Morris MC. the London County Council’s Fire Brigade Committee approve the reorganisation of the brigade. In addition to improved appliance design and the introduction of dual purpose fire engine with 50 ft. wheeled escape the brigade introduced ten enclosed breathing apparatus pumps, each carrying thee Proto sets.

In 1937 the new headquarters of the London Fire Brigade was formally opened by King George VI accompanied by Queen Elizabeth.  The bespoke, state of the art headquarters saw a dedicated brigade workshops incorporated into the design and Lambeth became the Brigade’s training school, both for new recruits and for breathing apparatus training. A smoke and heat training facility was included in the specification and was located in the basement under the main yard.

Lambeth fire station had the latest enclosed, BA carrying, limousine pumps plus one of the two emergency tenders. On the 12^th July 1938 a serious leakage of ammonia occurred at the Eldorado ice cream factory in Stamford Street, SE1. An incident which resulted in questions being asked in Parliament. Yet whilst the growth in acquiring breathing apparatus continued firemen had no gas-tight clothing to protect them from the dangerous effects of chemicals, most notably ammonia. A gas that has very unpleasant effects on the skin, attacking any places on the body liable to perspiration.

The ammonia escape involved much of this extensive factory. An escape of gas that would see 60 people removed to hospital for treatment, 15 of whom had to be detained. With Lambeth and Southwark’s crews summoned it fell to the emergency tender crew, whose Proto sets could be adapted to take full-faces masks, to take a briefing from the factory engineers to shut off the supply. With limited body protection the fireman had to smear a thick coating of ammonia resistant ointment to their necks, ears and hands before entering the white ammonia mist. It would not be until the 1950s that the Brigade were equipment with gas tight suits (Delta suits) to wear when dealing with such incidents.

Preparations for war had started in the mid-1930s. The enrolment in excess 25,000 Auxiliary Fire Service (AFS) firefighters, both men and women, expanded the service across London to previously unseen levels. In 1937, the government passed legislation to enable the establishment of an AFS of volunteers to support the regular fire brigades in the event of war. By September 1939 the AFS had over 200,000 members, some of whom were equipped with pumps pulled by cars, or London taxis painted grey, as fire engines were in such short supply. However, the use of breathing apparatus remainded the domain of the regular London firemen.

WWII

Following the declaration of war there followed a considerable lull when the anticipated enemy attacks on the UK, and in particular London, never materialised. Termed the ‘phoney war’ AFS firefighters received both press and public ridicule and were frequently referred to as ‘war dodgers!’ However, both regular firemen and the AFS firefighters were at the forefront of danger with the start of the Blitz in September 1940. Throughout that time, and until the creation of the National Fire Service (NFS) in August 1941, London’s regular firemen maintained all BA duties.

With the formation of the NFS the Siebe Gorman Salvus Mk VI breathing apparatus was a light oxygen rebreather set introduced into the London Region (NFS) and many of these sets supplemented the Proto sets across greater London’s fire stations. Their cooler boxes were marked ‘NFS’. Designed to last 30 minutes in an irrespirable atmosphere although it worked on the same principles of the Proto IV sets they were not interchangeable.

The general design and layout of the Proto breathing apparatus sets up to, and including, the Mark IV had not changed to any great extent. Improvements were made with each successive ‘mark’ and these included such things as the change from caustic soda to ‘Protosorb’ and the introduction of a small breathing bag, and the carrying of the pressure gauge in a pocket on the shoulder instead of in front of the breathing bag.

Additionally, during this time another type of breathing apparatus came upon the scene. Compressed air sets were developed during the Second World War and the LFB, part of the NFS, tested some of the early versions at the Lambeth headquarters. Photographic evidence shows the ‘Roberts’ set in use in a training role. If they were accepted into general operational service the records of when and where are scarce. Clearly some were used by BA instructional staff conducting Proto BA training at the Lambeth headquarters, but the outcome of trials are vague.

Return to Local Authority control

On the first April 1948 the London Fire Brigade returned to local authority control, the London County Council. The Brigade, in common with others, came under the supervision of the Home Office regarding its standards of efficiency, appliances and equipment, including breathing apparatus. Recovering from the war left the Brigade in a very poor financial state. No new stations would be built before 1956. Some stations still ran with NFS appliances and the BA carried comprised a mix of both Salvus and Proto sets. The two emergency tenders retained their Proto sets and a couple of compressed air sets.

Gordon Smith was a post war London fireman. He was stationed at the Bishopsgate station. He shares some of his experiences of BA from those times.

 “I recall, most of my training was done at my home station, Bishopsgate. First it was verbal and written questions on the Proto breathing apparatus. The capacity of the cylinder and the pressure, the flow rate in litres, the duration of the oxygen at two and a half litres per minute. Then the Protosorb, the coolant, the various valves, the donning procedure, the mouthpiece, nose clip and goggles also the entrapped procedure.

“Then would come the practical side. The wearing of the set under heavy smoke conditions, which was simulated by tying a black silk blindfold over your eyes. Then you would search a large room or series of rooms for a simulated victim. Generally you would search a space by maintaining contact with the wall, until you got back to your entry point, then diagonally from corner to corner. When you walked, or rather ‘shuffled’, you moved one foot cautiously ahead, testing the floor, then the other leg, in an outward sweeping movement, forward until it was beside your other foot.

If you hadn’t gone through the floor by then you took another step. Of course, our guvnor liked to make it a little more exciting so a few hazards were added. When searching the drill yard the boards would be lifted from the suction pit, drain covers would be missing and there would someone creeping up behind you who would crack open your bypass valve, to simulate that you had hooked it on something. All this training could take a good six months to complete to the satisfaction of the watch Station Officer.

For the training the BA had to be taken ‘off the run’ (unavailable). It could be two hours before we could put it back operationally. We only had two Proto sets and one Salvus set on the Pump. There was no BA on the open PE. There may have been a more authoritative BA testing unit somewhere in 1948 but I don’t remember where?  I seem to remember entering a system of concrete piping wearing BA, maybe the Lambeth headquarters, where it was necessary to crawl on all fours before meeting an obstruction. Then it was necessary to loosen the breathing bag and push it ahead of you and over the obstruction so you could then squeeze yourself over it. There was a heat source to make it more challenging.”

In December 1949 he attended the ill-fated Covent Garden fire. He was one of many sent below ground to fight the blaze.

“If we had already been exposed to smoke, which was the norm, before we rigged we would take a few breaths of oxygen through the mouthpiece before putting on the nose-clip, to clear our lungs. Our BA was the Proto one hour set including its cylinder containing 6 cubic feet of oxygen at 1800 psi. If you became trapped you were taught to turn off the main valve and use the bypass valve to supply the bag with the oxygen needed.”

The BA ‘Bowler’.

In the mid-1950s the Chiek Officer, Frederick Delve, introduced a new style fire helmet for the BA riders of the Brigade’s two wemergeny tenders, based at Clerkenwell and Lambeth fire station. Due to its shape it was soon nicked-named the ‘bowler’.

Whilst the helmet proved poplar with the firemen, especially when working in confined or restricted spaces with breathing apparatus, the helmet fell foul of the national standards governing the style and specifications of UK firemens helmet design. It was considered it lacked adequate neck protection, which the standard issue helmet afforded.

By the late 1950s the Brigade had to withdraw the helmets from operational use due to the conflict with national helmet design.

1958. A BA watershed

In January 1958 a massive fire swept through the Smithfield Meat Market in the City of London. Such was the intensity of that fire that it spread through two and a half acres of underground passages before involving the upper floors. Finally all BA crews were forced to withdraw and they had to surround the blaze. A blaze which lead to the collapsed of the old market buildings. It was a fire that was ultimately fought by 1,700 firemen and officers. Some 389 fire engines and ancillary vehicles attended the incident. Two dozen firefighters were injured at ‘Smithfield’s’, two tragically died.

In the early stages of the fire firemen wearing Proto breathing apparatus were committed into the basement to seek out the fire and extinguish it. John Bishop was an acting Station Officer and one of those first on the scene. His pump’s crew were one of scores to enter the Smithfield basement. This is his own story:

“It was a maze and we used clapping signals. I was going down the centre and I’d send men down a passageway here and there. You would walk along one step at a time, with the back of your hand in front of you in case you walked into something red-hot, making sure you were not going to fall down a hole. All we could find was passageways with meat packed either side from floor to ceiling. The smoke got thicker – you could eat it; black oily smoke. It was very cold down there and you were cold, even though you were sweating. That was fear.”

The re-drawing of breathing apparatus procedures.

Following Smithfield reports were submitted to the Fire Brigade Committee of the London County Council by Chief Officer Delve. Once again lessons were to be learned, lessons that could not be ignored. Some of the problems at Smithfield, regarding BA procedures, had occurred at two previous fires at Covent Garden. A revised LFB procedure was set up in 1956 following the second fatal Covent Garden Fire. This involved the provision of a BA Control Point. At Smithfield it was located in Charterhouse Lane. It detailed a record of the entry of men wearing BA into the incident however, the BA Control Point consisted of no more than a simple blackboard and white chalk. It recorded: name, station/location, time of entry and time due out.

As basic as it was it proved invaluable. It indicated, later, in the incident that two men were missing and overdue. However, following the tragic loss of life at Smithfield there were concerted calls for a more comprehensive schedule of BA procedures to be formulated. These calls came from Delve himself, his deputy Leslie Leete and Mr John Horner, General Secretary of the Fire Brigades Union.

Later that same year a Fire Service Circular (FSC) 37/1958 was issued. It detailed the findings of the Committee of Inquiry and recommended the following:-

• Tallies for BA sets;
• A Stage I and Stage II control procedure for recording & supervising BA wearers:
• The duties of a control operator:
• The procedure to be followed by crews:
• A main control procedure.

In the accompanying letter to the circular Brigades were requested to report their observations and recommendations in light of experience by the end of November 1959. There was at the time no specifications for the design and use of guide or personnel lines. It was considered that more experience had to be gained! Recommendations were, however, made in respect of a specification for a low cylinder pressure warning device and a distress signal device.

Finally, and in light of the views of Fire Brigades following Smithfield and based on their own experiences, it was clear that the use of BA would require more men to be better trained in its use and the safety procedures. Subsequent guidance on the selection of BA wearers was provided in FSC 32/1960 after agreement at the Central Fire Brigades Advisory Council on 27 July 1960. It recommended:-18 months operational service before BA training. A possible age limit for wearers. Standards of fitness. Two BA wearers per appliance equipped with BA.

Smithfield brought about the introduction of the Mark V Proto set. The set saw some major changes. The weight of set was reduced by 6 lbs (2.7 kilos) down to about 27 lbs (12.2 kilos). The reduction was achieved by the use a terylene fabric for the breathing bag and harness and using alloy steel for the oxygen cylinder. Additionally there were changes to the filter, valves and the by-pass valve. The main valve became the only valve operated by a hand wheel and it was no longer possible to confuse the controls. There was also a push button operated by-pass valve and an automatic relief value on the breathing bag.

Besides the changes to BA procedures the brigade increased its complete of emergency tenders by 100%. The additional tenders were placed a Greenwich and Euston fire stations. Additionally when a ‘BA required’ message was received by the control room two emergency tenders were dispatched to the incident. In some instances, dependent on the risks, additional breathing apparatus was sent at the time of the original call.  A typical example was a ship fire.

On Boxing Day 1960 a call was received to a fire on the Motor Vessel ‘Twin’, moored at Hercules Wharf in Poplar. E14. The 999 call was received at 9:25 p.m. and was on Brunswick Road ground. Its pump escape and turntable ladder together with Burdett Road’s pair joined the ET’s from Clerkenwell and Greenwich, plus Lee Green’s hose laying lorry as the initial attendance. Additionally West Ham’s (a separate, adjoining, fire brigade) emergency tender was sent together with a breathing apparatus control vehicle from Clerkenwell (the Divisional Headquarters) and the major control unit from the Lambeth headquarters. The incident also attracted two senior officers from Clerkenwell.

The officer in charge made an immediate attack on the fire committing his BA crews in the knowledge he had speedy BA reserves at hand if required. Neither did he require additional fire engines to deal with the incident. At 10.10 p.m. the fire was under control. His stop message gives an indication of the severity of the fire.

Stop for the MV Twin. Hercules Wharf. Severe damage by fire to 3 crew cabins on starboard quarters, water from 2 jets and hosereel from 1 pump from hydrant. 6 x Proto BA.

In late 1962 Leslie Leete became the LFB’s new Chief Officer. Among his initial actions was the return of the Brigade’s training school to Southwark. It would be the hub of all recruit, BA and ET training until the creation of the Greater London Council (GLC) in 1965 and an enlarged London Fire Brigade. The arrival of the GLC saw the part or whole amalgamation of the fire brigades surrounding the outgoing LCC’s London. Almost all of the former Middlesex brigade (which after London was the second largest brigade in the UK) was absorbed. The Brigades of East and West Ham together with Croydon were taken in wholesale.  Not all the appliances or equipment taken over were of the same pattern. BA sets were one such issue with Kent having some Salvus sets and others running with Proto Mark IV sets. Croydon fire brigade had moved entirely to compressed air sets. Fortunately those firemen familiar with Proto just required familiarisation with London’s Mark V set. As part of the transition Proto Mark V sets replaced the other inherited BA sets. In addition three emergency tenders were acquired, one each from Middlesex, Croydon and West Ham, bringing the Brigade’s fleet of ET’s to seven.

During the early 1960s an addition to existing Proto breathing apparatus came into service; compressed air (CABA). Supplied by Siebe Gorman the set was normally intended for the use of senior officers at major fires and where only short inspections of the progress/actions of Proto firemen was necessary. The set provided approximately half an hour of air, however, if the wearer was working hard the amount of time would be much reduced. The set comprised a full face mask, an air cylinder (carried vertically on the back) and the facility to allow the wearer to talk to other crew members.

At the end of the 1960s Proto BA remained the dominant set but there were three types of compressed air sets in use in the Brigade. The most common being Siebe Gorman but Roberts and Normalair sets had also been purchased.

In the last months of Leets’s service London had its worst post war ship fire. In August 1969 the SS Paraguay Star, moored at the Royal Victoria Dock. E 16 caught fire. Twenty pumps, a foam tender and both the Brigade’s fireboats (Massey Shaw and Firebrace) attended the refrigerated cargo/passenger ship (10,800 tons). The fire centred on the ships engine room and Proto crews experienced the most punishing heat and dense oily smoke whilst gaining access into the ship. As with many such protracted and involved BA incidents the BA Incident Box was summoned and spare oxygen cylinders sent to the scene. It facilitated BA wearers testing their sets, changing cylinders before being recommitted into the ship.

New era.

The arrival of the 1970s heralded a new era. An era where the arrival of a new Chief Officer brought change, especially in regard to breathing apparatus. The Proto set would be consigned to the history books and compressed air sets would replace them in a massive expansion of their allocation. Joe Milner had been the former Chief Officer of the Honk Kong fire service. When asked about his priorities on taking on the role of London’s new Chief he said that although helmets and clothing were some insurance against injury, not enough attention had been given to preventing the damage done to firemen’s lungs. In Hong Kong he had ensured that there was one breathing apparatus set for very two men on duty. London firemen were riding with a ratio of one set for every four men on duty.

The new Chief Officer quickly established his authority, but anyone left thinking the ‘new broom’ was going to swept away the practices of the past overnight with a programme of rapid reforms were disappointed. He was also a very regular face on the fireground and proved himself a competent operational officer and swiftly won the respect of his men. He commanded from the front and in August 1971 directed firefighting operations at London biggest blaze of the decade at Tooley Street. The second of two post war 50 pump fires.

The vast, disused, cold store warehouse fire involved breathing apparatus from the off. The severest of conditions tested wave after wave of Proto firemen attempting to enter the building and seek the heart of the blaze. It was not the only thing being tested. The recently introduced, new style, BA guidelines were given their baptism by fire. Many of the exhausted Proto crews were affected by the excessive heat and humidity. Late in the afternoon a contractor’s acetylene cylinder exploded. The resultant flashover caught three BA firemen working from a covered Bridgeway. All were injured and one was rushed to hospital suffering serious burns to his hands and face.

By 1972 Joe Milner was really getting into his stride. It was the year that his promise of more breathing apparatus for firemen was delivered. The ‘Airmaster’ compressed air (CA) breathing apparatus sets were introduced initially into pump-escapes and proto sets carried on pumps. Later the Proto was reduced to two sets with two additional CA sets carried. Eventually four CA sets were carried on every front line appliance (PE and pumps). The ‘Airmaster’ was subsequently replaced by the phased introduction of the Siebe Gorman ‘Firefighter’ set around 1979.

With the growth in chemical incidents Milner also oversaw the introduction of a Chemical Incident Unit into the operational fleet. It attended both chemical incidents and was mobilised to all radiation incidents. Among its crews duties were the safe decontamination of BA crews committed to such incidents. Milner also added the word ‘rescue’ to the title of emergency tenders. Henceforth they were called ‘emergency rescue tenders’.

With the widespread allocation of compressed air breathing apparatus to all front line appliances its use was very much the norm rather the exception. The age of the ‘smoke-eater’ if not totally passed their days were numbered. BA became an integral part of the fireman’s everyday operational kit.

Such was the importance of breathing apparatus to the fireman’s ‘job’ that the Fire Brigade’s Union cited it as a central plank in their case to secure a much overdue pay rises for firemen nationally. The case fell on deaf ears and the first national strike stated in November 1977. It would last until January 1978. Firemen across London, whilst on strike, carried their BA sets in their private cars to the scene of fires where there was a risk to life.

(London first woman firefighter joined the Brigade in 1982; the term fireman was officially replaced with ‘firefighter’ in all formal Brigade contracts by the late 1980s.)  

The 80s & 90s

In all instances serious fires underground were difficult, challenging and frequently dangerous. On every occasion breathing apparatus was necessity to extinguish the fire. A fire at the Oxford Street underground station was no exception. In November 1984 a blaze started in building materials stored in a closed-off passageway between the northbound Bakerloo and Victoria line platforms. It lead to many passengers being hospitalised with smoke inhalation. Such was the damage caused that the Victoria line had to be closed between Warren Street and Victoria for nearly a month. Something which gives an indication of the tremendous determination required of the BA firefighters in getting to grips with the blaze. (As a direct result a complete ban on smoking all sub-surface stations was introduced in February 1985.)

On the 18 November 1987, at approximately 19:30 p.m. a fire broke out at King’s Cross underground station, a major interchange on the London underground. The fire started on a wooden escalator serving the Piccadilly line when at 19:45 p.m. it erupted in a flashover into the underground ticket hall. The fire would kill 31 people, including Station Officer Townsley from Soho fire station and injure 100, some critically. It was the most significant BA fire of the decade. Whilst the conditions endured by the firefighters were horrendous their compressed air breathing apparatus sets stood up to the challenges presented. However, a number firefighters were overcome with heat exhaustion. What was found wanting was the outdated fire kit of the firefighters, kit that had hardly changed since the arrival of the early Proto sets? As a direct result of this fire improved fire kit was introduced, kit that has continued to be modified and updated to the present day.

A new style automatic distress signal unit was introduced on all breathing apparatus sets in 1990. The device would operate when the wearer is immobile for more than 20 seconds.

On 10^th July 1991 two firefighters died whilst wearing BA at a major fire at Gillender Street, E3. Fire had broken out in a document storage warehouse in the early afternoon. Before the fire was brought under control 40 pumping and specialist appliances attended. The incident took over six to contain. It was during the course of firefighting operations that a BA team were instructed to lay out a BA main guide line to the scene of the fire on a second floor mezzanine. It was whilst carrying out this activity that two firefighters (Terence James Hunt and David John Stokoe) from Silvertown fire station lost their lives.

Their deaths resulted in an immediate inquiry and investigation not only by the Brigade, the Fire Brigade Union but the Health and Safety Executive. Such was design of the building and its structure the fire generated punishing conditions of intense heat and dense smoke making the incident particularly difficult.

The internal report identified a number of areas of concern both of basic ‘firemanship’; departures from procedures and practical problems with the use of BA. Not least of the matters identified was issues with Operation 91 (that covered all matters BA related). The report suggest areas of it required revision and amendment. It was stated that a longer duration breathing apparatus set would have been an advantage (EDBA) although at the time the Brigade was only evaluating such equipment.

Health and Safety Executive, at the conclusion of their investigation, took the unprecedented action of serving two improvement notices on the Brigade. It brought about a radical review of BA practices and the standing of its training regime. However, of note the Brigade’s investigation also highlighted areas of excellence? One was those mentioned were East Ham’s Emergency Rescue Tender crew whose actions and professionalism in attacking the fire greatly aided the headway in extinguishing it. Finally the commitment and professionalism of a large number of the firefighters and officers, in such difficult and complicated circumstances, was considered worthy of the highest admiration and praise.

But the issuing of the Improvement Notices acted as a watershed, particularly in regard to BA training at all levels.

ERT were rebranded as Fire Rescue units with enhanced rescue capability and extended duration breathing apparatus sets.

Southwark Training Centre received approval for a multi-million pound make-over and refurbishment in 1992. It’s the first major overall at Southwark since its creation by Capt. Shaw in 1878. A pilot study also starts on the creation of a bespoke, hi-tech, firehouse complex at Southwark and the creation of the Brigade’s first ‘real-fire’ training facility.

The findings of a radical review of the LFB’s firefighter recruit training syllabus is agreed. Recruits had previously be trained in BA at the end of their course and prior to going to their stations. They now received that training at the mid-point, thereafter performed practical ladder drills wearing BA and following BA procedures. Recruits finished their basic training with a visit to the Fire Service College-Morton in Marsh to undergo ‘real fire training’ which was assessable.

A mobile heat and smoke training unit was introduced and made available to enhance station BA training.

Into the new millennium

After 12 years of research and development, in 2003, (and at a final cost of £22 million) the ‘Firehouse’ at the refurbished and modernised Southwark Training Centre goes live. It lasted less than two years! After a second fire in the complex it was necessary to stop all ‘real fire training’. The facility could only be used for ‘cold’ BA training. It was later demolished when the whole of the Southwark site was sold and the vast majority of Brigade training had been outsourced.

Not all was smothing sailing regarding BA especially if you happened to be a woman firefighter. There were serious issues of adequate PPE. Some women had to make do with ill-fitting kit. Not least were incorrectly fitting helmets, tunics and BA facemasks. The Brigade undertook to work nationally to provide ALL firefighters with the best possible gear regardless of size, gender or ethnicity.

At the same time the Brigade undertook improvements to its Fire Rescue Unit (FRU) fleet. They were to be increased from five to seven with enhanced essential specialist equipment in addition to their BA role. In December 2003 25 Draeger extended duration sets relaced the old sets on the FRU’s. They would extend a firefighter’s working time to a nominal 75 minutes. In addition the set was fitted a bodyguard intergrated pressure gauge which provided digital information toalart the wearer when to get out when conditions became unsafe.

In 2004 London saw the creation of the ‘London Resiliance Forum’. It meant, in practical terms. that more money was allocated to special clothing and equipment to make sure specially trained firefighters are able to deal with any kind of disaster.

BA Telemetry

(The process of recording and transmitting the readings of an instrument.)

In 2010, following research, it was established it was possible to interference (with the telemetry component of breathing apparatus) using a mobile handset, dongle or other 4G mobile device within a certain distance. This allowed live and relevant data to be transmitted and received between a remote monitoring point and the breathing apparatus wearer for the first time.

The LFB introduced telemetry procedures for their BA equipment. The telemetry was incorporated in BA command and control and BA equipment procedures.

Standard Duration Breathing Apparatus (SDBA)

The Brigades current standard duration breathing apparatus has only one cylinder. The set weighs about 15kgs. When a firefighter is breathing normally a SDBA they should get about 31 minutes of air time. But, if the firefighter is working hard and breathing heavily the cylinder won’t necessarily last that long.

Extended Duration Breathing Apparatus (EDBA)

To use extended duration breathing apparatus firefighters must have completed specialist training. EDBA sets have two cylinders and weigh around 23kgs.

A firefighter in EDBA should get 47 minutes of air time. But the same rules apply if the firefighter is working hard and breathing heavily.

EDBA is usually brought out when firefighters have to travel longer distances using breathing apparatus, like a train stuck in a tunnel.

Since the Smithfield fire (1958) whenever firefighters are committed using breathing apparatus a Breathing Apparatus Entry Control (BAEC) is established. The system tracks who’s gone in and who’s come out.

(Note. 1.Currently there is one contract in place with Dräger Ltd for the supply of component parts for BA, cylinders and telemetry equipment. This is due to expire on 1 July 2021. 2. The disparity between the duration of the EDBA set (75 minutes and 45 minutes) is not easy to explain. The current duraton is given at 45 minutes.)

Grenfell

The fire at Grenfell Tower on 14 June 2017 took the lives of 72 people. It left hundreds more with both physical and psychological injuries. Whilst firefighters are trained to respond to fires in residential high rise buildings this incident was of a scale and rapidity that was exceptional. Those failures created a set of conditions not previously experienced by the Brigade. It provided unique challenges for the Brigade and none more so than in its use of breathing apparatus.

The first on the scene, although experienced, were not of senior rank. They faced with a situation for which they had not been properly prepared or trained. In the resulting, ongoing, public inquiry it was established none seem to have been able to conceive of the possibility of a general failure of compartmentation or of a need for mass evacuation. The Inquiry looked, in microscopic precision, at the actions of individuals almost minute by minute. A few were found to be wanting but in publishing an interim report the Chairman, a retired High Court judge, to pains to state;

“The firefighters who attended the tower displayed extraordinary courage and selfless devotion to duty.”

In the aftermath the LFB, following its examination of the breathing apparatus and telemetry data gathered was able to identify the composition of all the BA teams deployed into Grenfell Tower. A detailed analysis of the data, including a comparison of the effectiveness of SDBA and EDBA in such circumstances was commenced in 2019 to identify learning that may inform operational procedures and / or the design of BA equipment in the future.

The training of all station-based firefighters begun the same year. Babcock Training Services (The LFB’s training provider) delivered half day briefings on fire safety in high-rise premises including elements of construction, compartmentation, firefighting facilities, evacuation strategies and ventilation systems. A computer-based training package and one day face-to-face training session covering fire safety in commercial premises is scheduled to take place in the financial year 20/21. Following Grenfell, and as the Brigade’s outsourced training arrangements have been in place for a number of years, the LFB commissioned an independent review of training by Ribband Star Consultancy Limited. A report was presented to Commissioner’s Board on 9 October 2019.

After Grenfell, the Brigade also began investigating the use of fire escape hoods to mitigate the risk of smoke inhalation for occupants attempting to escape or being rescued. The hoods were introduced in November 2018 and provide up to 15 minutes protection for the wearer. The hoods are attached to every BA set. They have used to assist in the rescue of 25 members of the public at October 2019. Investigations are taking place to see if additional fire escape hoods could be provided in designated grab packs on frontline appliances and used on occupants in the event an evacuation.

Problems with BA policy were discovered. A preliminary report to the LFB Commissioner noted that some elements of BA operations were not fully aligned to the Brigade’s operational procedures as set out in its operational BA policy.

The Brigade has since replaced its bi-annual two day BA course and the bi-annual half day confirmation of BA skills course. From April 2019 firefighters receive a new annual two day firefighting course; designed to increase firefighter awareness and understanding of tactical ventilation, scene survey, weight of attack and the importance of correct BA procedures.

The outcomes of its BA analysis will inform the development of operational procedures and BA equipment in the future. The Brigade is also investigating a number of events related to BA operations including the removal of personal facemasks to provide air to residents seeking to evacuate the building via the compromised stairwell, leading to exposure of the products of combustion.

Working with Imperial College they hope to establish an independent long term respiratory health study for firefighters who attended the Grenfell Tower incident. This study has the support of the Fire Brigades Union and is the largest of its kind to date, into the potential long-term effects of firefighting.

The Grenfell Tower Inquiry was suspended in March 2020 “until further notice” following the escalation in the country’s response to the growing coronavirus crisis. The history of the LFB’s continues to be written.

In memoriam

18^th March 1913. Pembridge Villas.  W11

Fireman Robert L. Libby

Fireman William McLare

20^th December 1949. Covent Garden Market. WC2.

Station Officer Charles Fisher

22^nd July 1956. Kensington High Street.

Leading Fireman Frederick Willoughy

23^rd January 1958. Smithfield Meat Market. EC1.

Station Officer Jack Fourt-Wells

Fireman Richard Stocking

8^th March 1968. Kings Road. SW3.

Fireman Brian O’Connell-Hutchings

Fireman Colin Comber

26^th January 1980. Regent Dock Canal.

Leading Fireman Stephen Maynard

30^th April 1981. Broadway, Wimbledon.

Fireman Anthony Marshall

27^th April 1981. St Georges Hospital. Tooting

Fireman Barry Trussell

10^th July 1991. Gillender Street.E3.

Firefighter Terence Hunt

Firefighter David Stokoe

20^th July 2004. Bethnal Green Road.

Firefighter Bill Faust

Firefighter Adam Meere